, 신다연2),†
, Dayeon Shin2),†
1)인하대학교 식품영양학과 대학원생
2)이화여자대학교 식품영양학과 부교수
1)Master’s Student, Department of Food and Nutrition, Inha University, Incheon, Korea
2)Associate Professor, Department of Nutritional Science and Food Management, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea
© 2026 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
FUNDING
This work was supported by a National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the Korean Government (MSIT) (RS-2024-00340086).
DATA AVAILABILITY
The survey data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available due to ethical and privacy considerations, as participants did not provide consent for public data sharing. However, anonymized data that do not contain identifiable individual-level information are available from the authors upon reasonable request.
| Variable | Total (n = 56) | Men | P-value1) | Total (n = 63) | Women | P-value1) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Users (n = 32) | Non-users (n = 24) | Users (n = 33) | Non-users (n = 30) | |||||
| Number of participants | 56 (100) | 32 (57.1) | 24 (42.9) | - | 63 (100) | 33 (52.4) | 30 (47.6) | - |
| Age (year) | 76.2 ± 6.8 | 75.3 ± 6.8 | 77.5 ± 6.7 | 0.277 | 81.8 ± 6.8 | 82.8 ± 5.6 | 80.7 ± 7.7 | 0.324 |
| Education level | < 0.001 | 0.307 | ||||||
| No formal education | 5 (8.9) | 5 (15.6) | 0 (0.0) | 14 (22.2) | 7 (21.2) | 7 (23.3) | ||
| Elementary school graduate | 9 (16.1) | 5 (15.6) | 4 (16.7) | 22 (34.9) | 13 (39.4) | 9 (30.0) | ||
| Middle school graduate | 12 (21.4) | 12 (37.5) | 0 (0.0) | 17 (27.0) | 6 (18.2) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| High school graduate | 20 (35.7) | 6 (18.8) | 14 (58.3) | 10 (15.9) | 7 (21.2) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| University graduate | 9 (16.1) | 4 (12.5) | 5 (20.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Graduate school or above | 1 (1.8) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (4.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Housing ownership type | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||||||
| Owned | 29 (51.8) | 6 (18.8) | 23 (95.8) | 29 (46.0) | 8 (24.2) | 21 (70.0) | ||
| Lease | 4 (7.1) | 4 (12.5) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (15.9) | 5 (15.2) | 5 (16.7) | ||
| Monthly rent | 18 (32.1) | 17 (53.1) | 1 (4.2) | 20 (31.7) | 16 (48.5) | 4 (13.3) | ||
| Facility | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Unknown | 3 (5.4) | 3 (9.4) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (6.3) | 4 (12.1) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Economic status | 0.001 | 0.293 | ||||||
| Very good | 2 (3.6) | 1 (3.1) | 1 (4.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Good | 6 (10.7) | 3 (9.4) | 3 (12.5) | 7 (11.1) | 4 (12.1) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Average | 31 (55.4) | 12 (37.5) | 19 (79.2) | 32 (50.8) | 16 (48.5) | 16 (53.3) | ||
| Poor | 15 (26.8) | 14 (43.8) | 1 (4.2) | 21 (33.3) | 13 (39.4) | 8 (26.7) | ||
| Very poor | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (4.8) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Frequency of contact with family/friends | 0.276 | 0.091 | ||||||
| Hardly ever | 7 (12.5) | 6 (18.8) | 1 (4.2) | 7 (11.1) | 4 (12.1) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| 1–2 times a month | 9 (16.1) | 3 (9.4) | 6 (25.0) | 3 (4.8) | 1 (3.0) | 2 (6.7) | ||
| 1–2 times a week | 14 (25.0) | 7 (21.9) | 7 (29.2) | 15 (23.8) | 4 (12.1) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Almost every day | 22 (39.3) | 14 (43.8) | 8 (33.3) | 33 (52.4) | 22 (66.7) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Several times a day | 4 (7.1) | 2 (6.3) | 2 (8.3) | 5 (7.9) | 2 (6.1) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Meal preparation ability | 0.398 | 0.071 | ||||||
| Not difficult at all | 26 (46.4) | 14 (43.8) | 12 (50.0) | 35 (55.6) | 23 (69.7) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Slightly difficult | 15 (26.8) | 8 (25.0) | 7 (29.2) | 20 (31.7) | 8 (24.2) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Fairly difficult | 8 (14.3) | 7 (21.9) | 1 (4.2) | 7 (11.1) | 2 (6.1) | 5 (16.7) | ||
| Almost unable | 5 (8.9) | 2 (6.3) | 3 (12.5) | 1 (1.6) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (3.3) | ||
| Completely unable | 2 (3.6) | 1 (3.1) | 1 (4.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Number of chronic diseases | 0.259 | 0.718 | ||||||
| None | 11 (19.6) | 8 (25.0) | 3 (12.5) | 3 (4.8) | 1 (3.0) | 2 (6.7) | ||
| 1 chronic disease | 16 (28.6) | 9 (28.1) | 7 (29.2) | 18 (28.6) | 8 (24.2) | 10 (33.3) | ||
| 2 chronic disease | 12 (21.4) | 4 (12.5) | 8 (33.3) | 13 (20.6) | 7 (21.2) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| 3 or more chronic diseases | 17 (30.4) | 11 (34.4) | 6 (25.0) | 29 (46.0) | 17 (51.5) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Height (cm) | 165.6 ± 5.6 | 165.0 ± 6.6 | 166.4 ± 3.7 | 0.405 | 154.0 ± 5.6 | 152.8 ± 6.3 | 155.3 ± 4.6 | 0.085 |
| Weight (kg) | 64.9 ± 7.4 | 64.4 ± 8.9 | 65.5 ± 4.8 | 0.435 | 54.2 ± 9.3 | 53.2 ± 7.0 | 55.3 ± 11.4 | 0.490 |
| BMI (kg/m2)2) | 0.730 | 0.110 | ||||||
| Underweight | 1 (1.8) | 1 (3.1) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (9.5) | 2 (6.1) | 4 (13.3) | ||
| Normal | 23 (41.1) | 13 (40.6) | 10 (31.3) | 27 (42.9) | 13 (39.4) | 14 (46.7) | ||
| Pre-obese | 17 (30.4) | 10 (31.3) | 7 (29.2) | 17 (27.0) | 13 (39.4) | 4 (13.3) | ||
| Obese Class I | 13 (23.2) | 6 (18.8) | 7 (29.2) | 11 (17.5) | 5 (15.2) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| Obese Class II | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (3.2) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (6.7) | ||
| Obese Class III | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
n (%) or Mean ± SD.
BMI, body mass index.
1)P-values were estimated using Fisher’s exact test and the Mann-Whitney U test.
2)Obesity classification: underweight (< 18.5 kg/m2), normal (18.5–22.9 kg/m2), pre-obesity (23.0–24.9 kg/m2), obesity class I (25.0–29.9 kg/m2), obesity class II (30.0–34.9 kg/m2), and obesity class III (≥ 35 kg/m2).
| Variable | Total (n = 56) | Men | P-value1) | Total (n = 63) | Women | P-value1) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Users (n = 32) | Non-users (n = 24) | Users (n = 33) | Non-users (n = 30) | |||||
| INQ2) | ||||||||
| Protein (g) | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 0.655 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 0.165 |
| Ca (mg) | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 0.132 | 0.7 ± 0.3 | 0.7 ± 0.4 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.536 |
| P (mg) | 1.8 ± 0.4 | 1.8 ± 0.4 | 1.9 ± 0.3 | 0.529 | 1.4 ± 0.3 | 1.4 ± 0.2 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 0.322 |
| Fe (mg) | 2.1 ± 1.7 | 2.0 ± 0.8 | 2.1 ± 2.5 | 0.055 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.4 | 0.074 |
| Zn (mg) | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 0.817 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.3 | 0.8 ± 0.4 | 0.012 |
| Vitamin A (μg RAE) | 0.8 ± 0.7 | 0.9 ± 0.9 | 0.6 ± 0.5 | 0.180 | 0.7 ± 0.6 | 0.9 ± 0.7 | 0.5 ± 0.4 | < 0.001 |
| Vitamin B1 (mg) | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 0.037 | 1.3 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.2 ± 0.5 | 0.296 |
| Vitamin B2 (mg) | 1.1 ± 0.5 | 1.2 ± 0.6 | 1.0 ± 0.3 | 0.024 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 0.019 |
| Vitamin B6 (mg) | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.791 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.231 |
| Vitamin B12 (μg) | 1.5 ± 1.2 | 1.5 ± 1.4 | 1.4 ± 1.0 | 0.631 | 1.2 ± 1.8 | 0.8 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 2.5 | 0.308 |
| Niacin (NE) (mg) | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 0.059 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 0.052 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 1.2 ± 2.0 | 1.3 ± 2.3 | 1.1 ± 1.7 | 0.132 | 0.9 ± 0.9 | 0.9 ± 0.9 | 0.8 ± 1.0 | 0.104 |
| Folate (DFE) (μg) | 1.0 ± 0.6 | 1.1 ± 0.7 | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 0.631 | 0.8 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 0.7 ± 0.3 | 0.032 |
| MAR3) | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | < 0.001 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | < 0.001 |
Mean ± SD.
INQ, index of nutritional quality; MAR, mean adequacy ratio; μg RAE, μg retinol activity equivalent; NE, niacin equivalent; DFE, dietary folate equivalent.
1)P-values were estimated using the Mann-Whitney U test.
2)INQ was calculated as the ratio of nutrient intake per 1,000 kcal to the recommended intake per 1,000 kcal.
3)Nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) was calculated by dividing nutrient intake by the recommended intake, with values restricted to 1. MAR represents the mean NAR across 13 nutrients: protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, niacin, vitamin C, and folate.
| Variable | Total (n = 56) | Men | P-value1) | Total (n = 63) | Women | P-value1) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Users (n = 32) | Non-users (n = 24) | Users (n = 33) | Non-users (n = 30) | |||||
| NQ-E score | ||||||||
| Nutrition Index | 53.9 ± 15.2 | 50.2 ± 14.5 | 58.9 ± 14.9 | 0.051 | 56.2 ± 13.5 | 59.3 ± 12.0 | 52.8 ± 14.4 | 0.107 |
| Balance | 47.8 ± 20.2 | 44.0 ± 19.0 | 53.0 ± 20.9 | 0.143 | 52.3 ± 17.5 | 55.9 ± 17.6 | 48.4 ± 16.9 | 0.132 |
| Moderation | 53.3 ± 37.2 | 45.7 ± 37.2 | 63.3 ± 35.3 | 0.098 | 61.2 ± 33.3 | 54.1 ± 32.0 | 69.0 ± 33.4 | 0.162 |
| Practice | 63.7 ± 18.1 | 61.3 ± 21.3 | 66.8 ± 12.5 | 0.337 | 60.9 ± 16.7 | 66.0 ± 16.4 | 55.2 ± 15.5 | 0.016 |
| NQ-E score (level) | 0.354 | 0.590 | ||||||
| High | 22 (39.3) | 10 (31.3) | 12 (50.0) | 29 (46.0) | 17 (51.5) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Medium | 21 (37.5) | 13 (40.6) | 8 (33.3) | 22 (34.9) | 11 (33.3) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Low | 13 (23.2) | 9 (28.1) | 4 (16.7) | 12 (19.0) | 5 (15.2) | 7 (23.3) | ||
| Balance score (level) | 0.615 | 0.242 | ||||||
| High | 21 (37.5) | 12 (37.5) | 9 (37.5) | 28 (44.4) | 18 (54.5) | 10 (33.3) | ||
| Medium | 20 (35.7) | 10 (31.3) | 10 (41.7) | 25 (39.7) | 11 (33.3) | 14 (46.7) | ||
| Low | 15 (26.8) | 10 (31.3) | 5 (20.8) | 10 (15.9) | 4 (12.1) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| Moderation score (level) | 0.329 | 0.141 | ||||||
| High | 23 (41.1) | 11 (34.4) | 12 (50.0) | 28 (44.4) | 11 (33.3) | 17 (56.7) | ||
| Medium | 13 (23.2) | 7 (21.9) | 6 (25.0) | 26 (41.3) | 17 (51.5) | 9 (30.0) | ||
| Low | 20 (35.7) | 14 (43.8) | 6 (25.0) | 9 (14.3) | 5 (15.2) | 4 (13.3) | ||
| Practice score (level) | 0.243 | 0.030 | ||||||
| High | 21 (37.5) | 11 (34.4) | 10 (41.7) | 15 (23.8) | 12 (36.4) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Medium | 19 (33.9) | 9 (28.1) | 10 (41.7) | 24 (38.1) | 12 (36.4) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Low | 16 (28.6) | 12 (37.5) | 4 (16.7) | 24 (38.1) | 9 (27.3) | 15 (50.0) | ||
NQ-E, Nutrition Quotient for the Elderly; B, unstandardized coefficient; SE, standard error; β, standardized coefficient; t, t-statistic testing.
The model was adjusted for age, education level (ref.: rarely/never attended school), energy intake, food security status (ref.: sufficient quantity and variety), breakfast frequency (ref.: 5–7 days/week), contact frequency (ref.: rarely/almost never), and physical difficulty (ref.: none/no effect on eating).
MAR, mean adequacy ratio; B, unstandardized coefficient; SE, standard error; β, standardized coefficient; t, t-statistic testing.
The model was adjusted for age, education level (ref.: rarely/never attended school), energy intake, food security status (ref.: sufficient quantity and variety), breakfast frequency (ref.: 5–7 days/week), contact frequency (ref.: rarely/almost never), and physical difficulty (ref.: none/no effect on eating).
| Variable | Total (n = 56) | Men | P-value |
Total (n = 63) | Women | P-value |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Users (n = 32) | Non-users (n = 24) | Users (n = 33) | Non-users (n = 30) | |||||
| Number of participants | 56 (100) | 32 (57.1) | 24 (42.9) | - | 63 (100) | 33 (52.4) | 30 (47.6) | - |
| Age (year) | 76.2 ± 6.8 | 75.3 ± 6.8 | 77.5 ± 6.7 | 0.277 | 81.8 ± 6.8 | 82.8 ± 5.6 | 80.7 ± 7.7 | 0.324 |
| Education level | < 0.001 | 0.307 | ||||||
| No formal education | 5 (8.9) | 5 (15.6) | 0 (0.0) | 14 (22.2) | 7 (21.2) | 7 (23.3) | ||
| Elementary school graduate | 9 (16.1) | 5 (15.6) | 4 (16.7) | 22 (34.9) | 13 (39.4) | 9 (30.0) | ||
| Middle school graduate | 12 (21.4) | 12 (37.5) | 0 (0.0) | 17 (27.0) | 6 (18.2) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| High school graduate | 20 (35.7) | 6 (18.8) | 14 (58.3) | 10 (15.9) | 7 (21.2) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| University graduate | 9 (16.1) | 4 (12.5) | 5 (20.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Graduate school or above | 1 (1.8) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (4.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Housing ownership type | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||||||
| Owned | 29 (51.8) | 6 (18.8) | 23 (95.8) | 29 (46.0) | 8 (24.2) | 21 (70.0) | ||
| Lease | 4 (7.1) | 4 (12.5) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (15.9) | 5 (15.2) | 5 (16.7) | ||
| Monthly rent | 18 (32.1) | 17 (53.1) | 1 (4.2) | 20 (31.7) | 16 (48.5) | 4 (13.3) | ||
| Facility | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Unknown | 3 (5.4) | 3 (9.4) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (6.3) | 4 (12.1) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Economic status | 0.001 | 0.293 | ||||||
| Very good | 2 (3.6) | 1 (3.1) | 1 (4.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Good | 6 (10.7) | 3 (9.4) | 3 (12.5) | 7 (11.1) | 4 (12.1) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Average | 31 (55.4) | 12 (37.5) | 19 (79.2) | 32 (50.8) | 16 (48.5) | 16 (53.3) | ||
| Poor | 15 (26.8) | 14 (43.8) | 1 (4.2) | 21 (33.3) | 13 (39.4) | 8 (26.7) | ||
| Very poor | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (4.8) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Frequency of contact with family/friends | 0.276 | 0.091 | ||||||
| Hardly ever | 7 (12.5) | 6 (18.8) | 1 (4.2) | 7 (11.1) | 4 (12.1) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| 1–2 times a month | 9 (16.1) | 3 (9.4) | 6 (25.0) | 3 (4.8) | 1 (3.0) | 2 (6.7) | ||
| 1–2 times a week | 14 (25.0) | 7 (21.9) | 7 (29.2) | 15 (23.8) | 4 (12.1) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Almost every day | 22 (39.3) | 14 (43.8) | 8 (33.3) | 33 (52.4) | 22 (66.7) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Several times a day | 4 (7.1) | 2 (6.3) | 2 (8.3) | 5 (7.9) | 2 (6.1) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Meal preparation ability | 0.398 | 0.071 | ||||||
| Not difficult at all | 26 (46.4) | 14 (43.8) | 12 (50.0) | 35 (55.6) | 23 (69.7) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Slightly difficult | 15 (26.8) | 8 (25.0) | 7 (29.2) | 20 (31.7) | 8 (24.2) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Fairly difficult | 8 (14.3) | 7 (21.9) | 1 (4.2) | 7 (11.1) | 2 (6.1) | 5 (16.7) | ||
| Almost unable | 5 (8.9) | 2 (6.3) | 3 (12.5) | 1 (1.6) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (3.3) | ||
| Completely unable | 2 (3.6) | 1 (3.1) | 1 (4.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Number of chronic diseases | 0.259 | 0.718 | ||||||
| None | 11 (19.6) | 8 (25.0) | 3 (12.5) | 3 (4.8) | 1 (3.0) | 2 (6.7) | ||
| 1 chronic disease | 16 (28.6) | 9 (28.1) | 7 (29.2) | 18 (28.6) | 8 (24.2) | 10 (33.3) | ||
| 2 chronic disease | 12 (21.4) | 4 (12.5) | 8 (33.3) | 13 (20.6) | 7 (21.2) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| 3 or more chronic diseases | 17 (30.4) | 11 (34.4) | 6 (25.0) | 29 (46.0) | 17 (51.5) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Height (cm) | 165.6 ± 5.6 | 165.0 ± 6.6 | 166.4 ± 3.7 | 0.405 | 154.0 ± 5.6 | 152.8 ± 6.3 | 155.3 ± 4.6 | 0.085 |
| Weight (kg) | 64.9 ± 7.4 | 64.4 ± 8.9 | 65.5 ± 4.8 | 0.435 | 54.2 ± 9.3 | 53.2 ± 7.0 | 55.3 ± 11.4 | 0.490 |
| BMI (kg/m2) |
0.730 | 0.110 | ||||||
| Underweight | 1 (1.8) | 1 (3.1) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (9.5) | 2 (6.1) | 4 (13.3) | ||
| Normal | 23 (41.1) | 13 (40.6) | 10 (31.3) | 27 (42.9) | 13 (39.4) | 14 (46.7) | ||
| Pre-obese | 17 (30.4) | 10 (31.3) | 7 (29.2) | 17 (27.0) | 13 (39.4) | 4 (13.3) | ||
| Obese Class I | 13 (23.2) | 6 (18.8) | 7 (29.2) | 11 (17.5) | 5 (15.2) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| Obese Class II | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (3.2) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (6.7) | ||
| Obese Class III | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Variable | Total (n = 56) | Men | P-value |
Total (n = 63) | Women | P-value |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Users (n = 32) | Non-users (n = 24) | Users (n = 33) | Non-users (n = 30) | |||||
| INQ |
||||||||
| Protein (g) | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 0.655 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 0.165 |
| Ca (mg) | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 0.132 | 0.7 ± 0.3 | 0.7 ± 0.4 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.536 |
| P (mg) | 1.8 ± 0.4 | 1.8 ± 0.4 | 1.9 ± 0.3 | 0.529 | 1.4 ± 0.3 | 1.4 ± 0.2 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 0.322 |
| Fe (mg) | 2.1 ± 1.7 | 2.0 ± 0.8 | 2.1 ± 2.5 | 0.055 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.4 | 0.074 |
| Zn (mg) | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 0.817 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.3 | 0.8 ± 0.4 | 0.012 |
| Vitamin A (μg RAE) | 0.8 ± 0.7 | 0.9 ± 0.9 | 0.6 ± 0.5 | 0.180 | 0.7 ± 0.6 | 0.9 ± 0.7 | 0.5 ± 0.4 | < 0.001 |
| Vitamin B1 (mg) | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 0.037 | 1.3 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.2 ± 0.5 | 0.296 |
| Vitamin B2 (mg) | 1.1 ± 0.5 | 1.2 ± 0.6 | 1.0 ± 0.3 | 0.024 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 0.019 |
| Vitamin B6 (mg) | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.3 ± 0.3 | 0.791 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.231 |
| Vitamin B12 (μg) | 1.5 ± 1.2 | 1.5 ± 1.4 | 1.4 ± 1.0 | 0.631 | 1.2 ± 1.8 | 0.8 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 2.5 | 0.308 |
| Niacin (NE) (mg) | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 0.059 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 0.052 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 1.2 ± 2.0 | 1.3 ± 2.3 | 1.1 ± 1.7 | 0.132 | 0.9 ± 0.9 | 0.9 ± 0.9 | 0.8 ± 1.0 | 0.104 |
| Folate (DFE) (μg) | 1.0 ± 0.6 | 1.1 ± 0.7 | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 0.631 | 0.8 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 0.7 ± 0.3 | 0.032 |
| MAR |
0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | < 0.001 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | < 0.001 |
| Variable | Total (n = 56) | Men | P-value |
Total (n = 63) | Women | P-value |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Users (n = 32) | Non-users (n = 24) | Users (n = 33) | Non-users (n = 30) | |||||
| NQ-E score | ||||||||
| Nutrition Index | 53.9 ± 15.2 | 50.2 ± 14.5 | 58.9 ± 14.9 | 0.051 | 56.2 ± 13.5 | 59.3 ± 12.0 | 52.8 ± 14.4 | 0.107 |
| Balance | 47.8 ± 20.2 | 44.0 ± 19.0 | 53.0 ± 20.9 | 0.143 | 52.3 ± 17.5 | 55.9 ± 17.6 | 48.4 ± 16.9 | 0.132 |
| Moderation | 53.3 ± 37.2 | 45.7 ± 37.2 | 63.3 ± 35.3 | 0.098 | 61.2 ± 33.3 | 54.1 ± 32.0 | 69.0 ± 33.4 | 0.162 |
| Practice | 63.7 ± 18.1 | 61.3 ± 21.3 | 66.8 ± 12.5 | 0.337 | 60.9 ± 16.7 | 66.0 ± 16.4 | 55.2 ± 15.5 | 0.016 |
| NQ-E score (level) | 0.354 | 0.590 | ||||||
| High | 22 (39.3) | 10 (31.3) | 12 (50.0) | 29 (46.0) | 17 (51.5) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Medium | 21 (37.5) | 13 (40.6) | 8 (33.3) | 22 (34.9) | 11 (33.3) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Low | 13 (23.2) | 9 (28.1) | 4 (16.7) | 12 (19.0) | 5 (15.2) | 7 (23.3) | ||
| Balance score (level) | 0.615 | 0.242 | ||||||
| High | 21 (37.5) | 12 (37.5) | 9 (37.5) | 28 (44.4) | 18 (54.5) | 10 (33.3) | ||
| Medium | 20 (35.7) | 10 (31.3) | 10 (41.7) | 25 (39.7) | 11 (33.3) | 14 (46.7) | ||
| Low | 15 (26.8) | 10 (31.3) | 5 (20.8) | 10 (15.9) | 4 (12.1) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| Moderation score (level) | 0.329 | 0.141 | ||||||
| High | 23 (41.1) | 11 (34.4) | 12 (50.0) | 28 (44.4) | 11 (33.3) | 17 (56.7) | ||
| Medium | 13 (23.2) | 7 (21.9) | 6 (25.0) | 26 (41.3) | 17 (51.5) | 9 (30.0) | ||
| Low | 20 (35.7) | 14 (43.8) | 6 (25.0) | 9 (14.3) | 5 (15.2) | 4 (13.3) | ||
| Practice score (level) | 0.243 | 0.030 | ||||||
| High | 21 (37.5) | 11 (34.4) | 10 (41.7) | 15 (23.8) | 12 (36.4) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Medium | 19 (33.9) | 9 (28.1) | 10 (41.7) | 24 (38.1) | 12 (36.4) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Low | 16 (28.6) | 12 (37.5) | 4 (16.7) | 24 (38.1) | 9 (27.3) | 15 (50.0) | ||
| Variable | B (unstandardized) | SE | β (standardized) | t | P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Men | (Intercept) | 45.059 | 22.649 | - | 1.990 | 0.052 |
| Use of free meal service | –11.170 | 3.948 | –0.368 | –2.829 | 0.007 | |
| Adjusted R2 = 0.390, F = 5.389 | ||||||
| Women | (Intercept) | 37.161 | 25.796 | - | 1.441 | 0.155 |
| Use of free meal service | 1.323 | 3.657 | 0.05 | 0.362 | 0.719 | |
| Adjusted R2 = 0.220, F = 3.180 | ||||||
| Variable | B (unstandardized) | SE | β (standardized) | t | P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Men | (Intercept) | 0.736 | 0.209 | - | 3.525 | < 0.001 |
| Use of free meal service | 0.064 | 0.036 | 0.180 | 1.757 | 0.085 | |
| Adjusted R2 = 0.623, F = 12.364 | ||||||
| Women | (Intercept) | 0.696 | 0.277 | - | 2.513 | 0.015 |
| Use of free meal service | 0.105 | 0.039 | 0.251 | 2.684 | 0.010 | |
| Adjusted R2 = 0.635, F = 14.468 | ||||||
| Variable | Total (n = 56) | Men | P-value1) | Total (n = 63) | Women | P-value1) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Users (n = 32) | Non-users (n = 24) | Users (n = 33) | Non-users (n = 30) | |||||
| Perceived health status | 0.179 | 0.017 | ||||||
| Very poor | 5 (8.9) | 4 (12.5) | 1 (4.2) | 3 (4.8) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Poor | 10 (17.9) | 7 (21.9) | 3 (12.5) | 21 (33.3) | 10 (30.3) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Fair | 15 (26.8) | 6 (18.8) | 9 (37.5) | 18 (28.6) | 9 (27.3) | 9 (30.0) | ||
| Good | 19 (33.9) | 9 (28.1) | 10 (41.7) | 13 (20.6) | 6 (18.2) | 7 (23.3) | ||
| Very good | 7 (12.5) | 6 (18.8) | 1 (4.2) | 8 (12.7) | 8 (24.2) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Perceived nutritional status | 0.330 | 0.031 | ||||||
| Very poor | 1 (1.8) | 1 (3.1) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (3.2) | 1 (3.0) | 1 (3.3) | ||
| Poor | 4 (7.1) | 4 (12.5) | 0 (0.0) | 14 (22.2) | 3 (9.1) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Fair | 28 (50.0) | 14 (43.8) | 14 (58.3) | 30 (47.6) | 16 (48.5) | 14 (46.7) | ||
| Good | 17 (30.4) | 9 (28.1) | 8 (33.3) | 10 (15.9) | 7 (21.2) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Very good | 6 (10.7) | 4 (12.5) | 2 (8.3) | 7 (11.1) | 6 (18.2) | 1 (3.3) | ||
| Perceived economic factors | 0.041 | 0.013 | ||||||
| Not at all influential | 16 (28.6) | 10 (31.3) | 6 (25.0) | 13 (20.6) | 11 (33.3) | 2 (6.7) | ||
| Hardly influential | 13 (23.2) | 3 (9.4) | 10 (41.7) | 6 (9.5) | 1 (3.0) | 5 (16.7) | ||
| Neutral | 12 (21.4) | 7 (21.9) | 5 (20.8) | 20 (31.7) | 8 (24.2) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Influential | 13 (23.2) | 10 (31.3) | 3 (12.5) | 17 (27.0) | 11 (33.3) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| Very influential | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 7 (11.1) | 2 (6.1) | 5 (16.7) | ||
| Perceived social factors | 0.084 | 0.121 | ||||||
| Not at all influential | 29 (51.8) | 16 (50.0) | 13 (54.2) | 32 (50.8) | 21 (63.6) | 11 (36.7) | ||
| Hardly influential | 14 (25.0) | 5 (15.6) | 9 (37.5) | 7 (11.1) | 2 (6.1) | 5 (16.7) | ||
| Neutral | 6 (10.7) | 4 (12.5) | 2 (8.3) | 11 (17.5) | 5 (15.2) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| Influential | 5 (8.9) | 5 (15.6) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (15.9) | 5 (15.2) | 5 (16.7) | ||
| Very influential | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (4.8) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (10.0) | ||
| Perceived physical factors | 0.349 | 0.117 | ||||||
| Not at all influential | 24 (42.9) | 14 (43.8) | 10 (41.7) | 24 (38.1) | 17 (51.5) | 7 (23.3) | ||
| Hardly influential | 8 (14.3) | 4 (12.5) | 4 (16.7) | 6 (9.5) | 4 (12.1) | 2 (6.7) | ||
| Neutral | 11 (19.6) | 4 (12.5) | 7 (29.2) | 10 (15.9) | 4 (12.1) | 6 (20.0) | ||
| Influential | 11 (19.6) | 8 (25.0) | 3 (12.5) | 18 (28.6) | 6 (18.2) | 12 (40.0) | ||
| Very influential | 2 (3.6) | 2 (6.3) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (7.9) | 2 (6.1) | 3 (10.0) | ||
n (%) or Mean ± SD. BMI, body mass index. Obesity classification: underweight (< 18.5 kg/m2), normal (18.5–22.9 kg/m2), pre-obesity (23.0–24.9 kg/m2), obesity class I (25.0–29.9 kg/m2), obesity class II (30.0–34.9 kg/m2), and obesity class III (≥ 35 kg/m2).
Mean ± SD. INQ, index of nutritional quality; MAR, mean adequacy ratio; μg RAE, μg retinol activity equivalent; NE, niacin equivalent; DFE, dietary folate equivalent. INQ was calculated as the ratio of nutrient intake per 1,000 kcal to the recommended intake per 1,000 kcal. Nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) was calculated by dividing nutrient intake by the recommended intake, with values restricted to 1. MAR represents the mean NAR across 13 nutrients: protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, niacin, vitamin C, and folate.
Mean ± SD or n (%). NQ-E, Nutrition Quotient for the Elderly.
NQ-E, Nutrition Quotient for the Elderly; B, unstandardized coefficient; SE, standard error; β, standardized coefficient; t, t-statistic testing. The model was adjusted for age, education level (ref.: rarely/never attended school), energy intake, food security status (ref.: sufficient quantity and variety), breakfast frequency (ref.: 5–7 days/week), contact frequency (ref.: rarely/almost never), and physical difficulty (ref.: none/no effect on eating).
MAR, mean adequacy ratio; B, unstandardized coefficient; SE, standard error; β, standardized coefficient; t, t-statistic testing. The model was adjusted for age, education level (ref.: rarely/never attended school), energy intake, food security status (ref.: sufficient quantity and variety), breakfast frequency (ref.: 5–7 days/week), contact frequency (ref.: rarely/almost never), and physical difficulty (ref.: none/no effect on eating).
n (%).
