1)공주대학교 교육대학원 영양교육전공 석사
2)공주대학교 식품영양학과 교수
3)서원대학교 식품영양학과 부교수
1)Master Degree, Major in Nutrition Education, Graduate School of Education, Kongju National University, Yesan, Korea
2)Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, Kongju National University, Yesan, Korea
3)Associate Professor, Department of Food and Nutrition, Seowon University, Cheongju, Korea
© 2025 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There are no financial or other issues that might lead to conflict of interest.
FUNDING
None.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Research data is available after a reasonable request to the corresponding author.
Variable | Total (n = 337) |
---|---|
Mother’s age (year) | 38.3 ± 4.3 |
No. of family members | |
3 or less | 69 (20.5) |
4 | 193 (57.3) |
5 | 75 (22.2) |
No. of children | |
1 | 62 (18.4) |
2 | 213 (63.2) |
over 3 | 62 (18.4) |
Type of family | |
Nuclear family | 314 (93.2) |
Extended family | 23 (6.8) |
Mother’s occupational status1) | |
Professional | 46 (13.7) |
Office worker | 45 (13.5) |
Civil servant | 42 (12.6) |
Self-employed | 29 (8.7) |
Part-time | 38 (11.4) |
Housewife | 134 (40.1) |
Child’s sex1) | |
Male | 180 (53.6) |
Female | 156 (46.4) |
Subjective child’s health condition | |
Very weak | 5 (1.5) |
Weak | 21 (6.2) |
Normal | 53 (15.7) |
Healthy | 182 (54.0) |
Very healthy | 76 (22.6) |
Variable | Total (n = 337) |
HMR use frequency for child meals |
P-value1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Over three times a week (n = 62) | One to two times a week (n = 145) | Under once a week (n = 130) | |||
HMR use frequency for family meals | |||||
3 or more times a week | 69 (20.5) | 55 (88.7) | 12 (8.3) | 2 (1.5) | < 0.0012) |
Once–twice times a week | 159 (47.2) | 6 (9.7) | 131 (90.3) | 22 (16.9) | |
Under once a month | 109 (32.3) | 1 (1.6) | 2 (1.4) | 106 (81.6) | |
Main use purpose of HMR3) | |||||
Breakfast | 70 (20.8) | 22 (35.5) | 37 (25.5) | 11 (8.5) | < 0.001 |
Lunch | 56 (16.6) | 5 (8.1) | 29 (20.0) | 22 (16.9) | 0.107 |
Dinner | 108 (32.1) | 32 (51.6) | 52 (35.9) | 24 (18.5) | < 0.001 |
Night snack | 312 (92.6) | 12 (19.4) | 4 (2.8) | 9 (6.9) | < 0.001 |
Side dishes | 129 (38.3) | 35 (56.5) | 66 (45.5) | 28 (21.5) | < 0.001 |
Packed lunches | 11 (3.3) | 1 (1.6) | 7 (4.8) | 3 (2.3) | 0.362 |
Snacks | 166 (49.3) | 33 (53.2) | 67 (46.2) | 66 (50.8) | 0.592 |
For travel | 103 (30.6) | 10 (16.1) | 45 (31.0) | 48 (36.9) | 0.014 |
Reason for purchasing HMR3) | |||||
No time | 120 (35.6) | 18 (29.0) | 63 (43.5) | 39 (30.0) | 0.033 |
Convenience | 263 (78.0) | 53 (85.5) | 120 (82.8) | 90 (69.2) | 0.008 |
Taste | 65 (19.3) | 12 (19.4) | 32 (22.1) | 21 (16.2) | 0.463 |
Lack of cooking skills | 63 (18.7) | 16 (25.8) | 28 (19.3) | 19 (14.6) | 0.172 |
Variety to choose | 87 (25.8) | 21 (33.9) | 36 (24.8) | 30 (23.1) | 0.261 |
Cheaper than cooking | 90 (26.7) | 20 (32.3) | 40 (27.6) | 30 (23.1) | 0.385 |
Main place purchasing HMR3) | |||||
Convenient store | 17 (5.0) | 4 (6.5) | 7 (4.8) | 6 (4.6) | 0.852 |
Major retail market | 275 (81.6) | 52 (83.8) | 121 (83.5) | 102 (78.5) | 0.498 |
Supermarket | 83 (24.6) | 17 (27.4) | 35 (24.1) | 31 (23.9) | 0.851 |
Internet | 126 (37.4) | 28 (45.2) | 69 (47.6) | 29 (22.3) | < 0.001 |
Home shopping | 29 (8.6) | 7 (11.3) | 14 (9.7) | 8 (6.2) | 0.414 |
Important considerations when purchasing HMR3) | |||||
Taste | 268 (79.5) | 50 (80.7) | 122 (84.1) | 96 (73.9) | 0.105 |
Nutrition | 158 (46.9) | 33 (53.2) | 76 (52.4) | 49 (37.7) | 0.027 |
Price | 76 (22.6) | 21 (33.9) | 36 (24.8) | 19 (14.6) | 0.008 |
Convenience | 147 (43.6) | 32 (51.6) | 66 (45.5) | 49 (37.7) | 0.159 |
Hygiene | 134 (39.8) | 26 (41.9) | 57 (39.3) | 51 (39.2) | 0.928 |
Brand | 115 (34.1) | 22 (35.5) | 53 (36.6) | 40 (30.8) | 0.582 |
Variable | Total (n = 337) |
HMR use frequency for child meals |
P-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Over three times a week (n = 62) | One to two times a week (n = 145) | Under once a week (n = 130) | |||
Ready to eat | |||||
Lunch box | 18 (5.3) | 6 (9.7) | 7 (4.8) | 5 (3.9) | 0.228 |
Gimbap | 129 (38.3) | 31 (50.0) | 55 (37.9) | 43 (33.1) | 0.078 |
Meat side dish | 38 (11.3) | 14 (22.6) | 20 (13.8) | 4 (3.1) | < 0.001 |
Fish side dish | 17 (5.0) | 9 (14.5) | 6 (4.1) | 2 (1.5) | 0.001 |
Vegetable side dish | 29 (8.6) | 10 (16.1) | 13 (9.0) | 6 (4.6) | 0.029 |
Salad | 37 (11.0) | 13 (21.0) | 16 (11.0) | 8 (6.2) | 0.009 |
Ready to heat1) | |||||
Instant rice | 121 (35.9) | 19 (30.7) | 64 (44.1) | 38 (29.2) | 0.023 |
Instant porridge | 26 (7.7) | 8 (12.9) | 12 (8.3) | 6 (4.6) | 0.125 |
Instant soup | 57 (16.9) | 15 (24.2) | 29 (20.0) | 13 (10.0) | 0.021 |
Cup rice | 17 (5.0) | 4 (6.5) | 8 (5.5) | 5 (3.9) | 0.700 |
Sauce for rice | 52 (15.4) | 15 (24.2) | 23 (15.9) | 14 (10.8) | 0.054 |
Dumplings | 237 (70.3) | 42 (67.7) | 109 (75.2) | 86 (66.2) | 0.233 |
Food to eat after simple cooking1) | |||||
Casserole cooking kit | 46 (13.7) | 12 (19.4) | 25 (17.2) | 9 (6.9) | 0.016 |
Flour-based snack kit | 129 (38.3) | 35 (56.5) | 56 (38.6) | 38 (29.2) | 0.001 |
Meat cooking kit | 55 (16.3) | 17 (27.4) | 26 (17.9) | 12 (9.2) | 0.005 |
Noodle cooking kit | 92 (27.3) | 16 (25.8) | 52 (35.9) | 24 (18.5) | 0.005 |
Sauce for casserole | 40 (11.9) | 7 (11.3) | 21 (14.5) | 12 (9.2) | 0.400 |
Sauce for glazed dishes | 15 (4.5) | 3 (4.8) | 8 (5.5) | 4 (3.1) | 0.611 |
Variable | Total (n = 337) |
HMR use frequency for child meals |
P-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Over three times a week (n = 62) | One to two times a week (n = 145) | Under once a week (n = 130) | |||
HMRs are tastier than my cooking1) | 3.2 ± 0.9 | 3.4 ± 0.8a,2) | 3.3 ± 0.8a | 3.0 ± 0.9b | 0.002 |
I like to use HMR to shorten the cooking time, and I prefer to use that time for my child1) | 3.4 ± 1.0 | 3.7 ± 0.9a | 3.5 ± 0.9a | 3.0 ± 1.0b | < 0.001 |
HMRs play an important role for my family’s nutrition intake1) | 2.3 ± 0.9 | 2.7 ± 0.8a | 2.3 ± 0.8b | 2.1 ± 0.8b | < 0.001 |
Eating HMRs is more desirable than dining out1) | 2.6 ± 0.8 | 2.9 ± 0.8a | 2.5 ± 0.8b | 2.5 ± 0.8b | 0.006 |
If my child enjoys HMRs, I will prepare nutritious food using HMRs1) | 2.8 ± 1.0 | 3.6 ± 0.9a | 2.9 ± 1.0b | 2.4 ± 1.0c | < 0.001 |
HMRs allows my child to experience various food1) | 2.8 ± 0.9 | 3.2 ± 0.9a | 2.9 ± 0.9b | 2.6 ± 0.9c | < 0.001 |
Use of HMRs is not option but essential in the busy modern life1) | 3.2 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.6a | 3.4 ± 0.9b | 2.8 ± 0.9c | < 0.001 |
HMRs are not good for nutrition3) | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 3.2 ± 0.7 | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 0.156 |
For my family health, I will try not to use HMRs if possible3) | 2.6 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 0.9a | 2.7 ± 0.8b | 2.2 ± 0.9c | < 0.001 |
Total4) | 25.8 ± 5.2 | 29.0 ± 4.2a | 26.5 ± 4.7b | 23.4 ± 5.0c | < 0.001 |
Mean ± SD.
HMR, home meal replacement.
P-values were from ANOVA, and different letters represent statistical differences determined by the Duncan post-hoc test.
1)Measured using a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” (scored 1) to “strongly agree” (scored 5).
2)a–c means with different alphabets in each row are significantly different at α = 0.05 as determined by Duncan’s test (a > b > c).
3)Measured using a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” (scored 5) to “strongly agree” (scored 1).
4)Nine items were used to assess mother’s attitude towards using HMR.
Variable | Total (n = 337) |
HMR use frequency for child meals |
P-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Over three times a week (n = 62) | One to two times a week (n = 145) | Under once a week (n = 130) | |||
Child’s preference for HMR | < 0.0011) | ||||
Not preferred | 44 (13.1) | 5 (8.1) | 9 (6.2) | 30 (23.1) | |
Neutral | 201 (59.6) | 34 (54.8) | 98 (67.6) | 69 (53.1) | |
Preferred | 92 (27.3) | 23 (37.1) | 38 (26.2) | 31 (23.8) | |
Child’s preferred type of HMR2) | |||||
Rice, porridges | 48 (14.2) | 14 (22.6) | 22 (15.2) | 12 (9.2) | 0.043 |
Soup, casseroles | 53 (15.7) | 14 (22.6) | 25 (17.2) | 14 (10.8) | 0.088 |
Meat side dish | 101 (30.0) | 30 (48.4) | 45 (31.0) | 26 (20.0) | < 0.001 |
Vegetable side dish | 16 (4.8) | 3 (4.8) | 7 (4.8) | 6 (4.6) | 0.996 |
Salad | 13 (3.9) | 5 (8.1) | 4 (2.8) | 4 (3.1) | 0.162 |
Dumplings | 200 (59.4) | 37 (59.7) | 81 (55.9) | 82 (63.1) | 0.477 |
Others | 78 (23.2) | 15 (24.2) | 36 (24.8) | 27 (20.8) | 0.711 |
Variable | Total (n = 337) |
---|---|
Mother’s age (year) | 38.3 ± 4.3 |
No. of family members | |
3 or less | 69 (20.5) |
4 | 193 (57.3) |
5 | 75 (22.2) |
No. of children | |
1 | 62 (18.4) |
2 | 213 (63.2) |
over 3 | 62 (18.4) |
Type of family | |
Nuclear family | 314 (93.2) |
Extended family | 23 (6.8) |
Mother’s occupational status |
|
Professional | 46 (13.7) |
Office worker | 45 (13.5) |
Civil servant | 42 (12.6) |
Self-employed | 29 (8.7) |
Part-time | 38 (11.4) |
Housewife | 134 (40.1) |
Child’s sex |
|
Male | 180 (53.6) |
Female | 156 (46.4) |
Subjective child’s health condition | |
Very weak | 5 (1.5) |
Weak | 21 (6.2) |
Normal | 53 (15.7) |
Healthy | 182 (54.0) |
Very healthy | 76 (22.6) |
Variable | Total (n = 337) | HMR use frequency for child meals |
P-value |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Over three times a week (n = 62) | One to two times a week (n = 145) | Under once a week (n = 130) | |||
HMR use frequency for family meals | |||||
3 or more times a week | 69 (20.5) | 55 (88.7) | 12 (8.3) | 2 (1.5) | < 0.001 |
Once–twice times a week | 159 (47.2) | 6 (9.7) | 131 (90.3) | 22 (16.9) | |
Under once a month | 109 (32.3) | 1 (1.6) | 2 (1.4) | 106 (81.6) | |
Main use purpose of HMR |
|||||
Breakfast | 70 (20.8) | 22 (35.5) | 37 (25.5) | 11 (8.5) | < 0.001 |
Lunch | 56 (16.6) | 5 (8.1) | 29 (20.0) | 22 (16.9) | 0.107 |
Dinner | 108 (32.1) | 32 (51.6) | 52 (35.9) | 24 (18.5) | < 0.001 |
Night snack | 312 (92.6) | 12 (19.4) | 4 (2.8) | 9 (6.9) | < 0.001 |
Side dishes | 129 (38.3) | 35 (56.5) | 66 (45.5) | 28 (21.5) | < 0.001 |
Packed lunches | 11 (3.3) | 1 (1.6) | 7 (4.8) | 3 (2.3) | 0.362 |
Snacks | 166 (49.3) | 33 (53.2) | 67 (46.2) | 66 (50.8) | 0.592 |
For travel | 103 (30.6) | 10 (16.1) | 45 (31.0) | 48 (36.9) | 0.014 |
Reason for purchasing HMR |
|||||
No time | 120 (35.6) | 18 (29.0) | 63 (43.5) | 39 (30.0) | 0.033 |
Convenience | 263 (78.0) | 53 (85.5) | 120 (82.8) | 90 (69.2) | 0.008 |
Taste | 65 (19.3) | 12 (19.4) | 32 (22.1) | 21 (16.2) | 0.463 |
Lack of cooking skills | 63 (18.7) | 16 (25.8) | 28 (19.3) | 19 (14.6) | 0.172 |
Variety to choose | 87 (25.8) | 21 (33.9) | 36 (24.8) | 30 (23.1) | 0.261 |
Cheaper than cooking | 90 (26.7) | 20 (32.3) | 40 (27.6) | 30 (23.1) | 0.385 |
Main place purchasing HMR |
|||||
Convenient store | 17 (5.0) | 4 (6.5) | 7 (4.8) | 6 (4.6) | 0.852 |
Major retail market | 275 (81.6) | 52 (83.8) | 121 (83.5) | 102 (78.5) | 0.498 |
Supermarket | 83 (24.6) | 17 (27.4) | 35 (24.1) | 31 (23.9) | 0.851 |
Internet | 126 (37.4) | 28 (45.2) | 69 (47.6) | 29 (22.3) | < 0.001 |
Home shopping | 29 (8.6) | 7 (11.3) | 14 (9.7) | 8 (6.2) | 0.414 |
Important considerations when purchasing HMR |
|||||
Taste | 268 (79.5) | 50 (80.7) | 122 (84.1) | 96 (73.9) | 0.105 |
Nutrition | 158 (46.9) | 33 (53.2) | 76 (52.4) | 49 (37.7) | 0.027 |
Price | 76 (22.6) | 21 (33.9) | 36 (24.8) | 19 (14.6) | 0.008 |
Convenience | 147 (43.6) | 32 (51.6) | 66 (45.5) | 49 (37.7) | 0.159 |
Hygiene | 134 (39.8) | 26 (41.9) | 57 (39.3) | 51 (39.2) | 0.928 |
Brand | 115 (34.1) | 22 (35.5) | 53 (36.6) | 40 (30.8) | 0.582 |
Variable | Total (n = 337) | HMR use frequency for child meals |
P-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Over three times a week (n = 62) | One to two times a week (n = 145) | Under once a week (n = 130) | |||
Ready to eat | |||||
Lunch box | 18 (5.3) | 6 (9.7) | 7 (4.8) | 5 (3.9) | 0.228 |
Gimbap | 129 (38.3) | 31 (50.0) | 55 (37.9) | 43 (33.1) | 0.078 |
Meat side dish | 38 (11.3) | 14 (22.6) | 20 (13.8) | 4 (3.1) | < 0.001 |
Fish side dish | 17 (5.0) | 9 (14.5) | 6 (4.1) | 2 (1.5) | 0.001 |
Vegetable side dish | 29 (8.6) | 10 (16.1) | 13 (9.0) | 6 (4.6) | 0.029 |
Salad | 37 (11.0) | 13 (21.0) | 16 (11.0) | 8 (6.2) | 0.009 |
Ready to heat |
|||||
Instant rice | 121 (35.9) | 19 (30.7) | 64 (44.1) | 38 (29.2) | 0.023 |
Instant porridge | 26 (7.7) | 8 (12.9) | 12 (8.3) | 6 (4.6) | 0.125 |
Instant soup | 57 (16.9) | 15 (24.2) | 29 (20.0) | 13 (10.0) | 0.021 |
Cup rice | 17 (5.0) | 4 (6.5) | 8 (5.5) | 5 (3.9) | 0.700 |
Sauce for rice | 52 (15.4) | 15 (24.2) | 23 (15.9) | 14 (10.8) | 0.054 |
Dumplings | 237 (70.3) | 42 (67.7) | 109 (75.2) | 86 (66.2) | 0.233 |
Food to eat after simple cooking |
|||||
Casserole cooking kit | 46 (13.7) | 12 (19.4) | 25 (17.2) | 9 (6.9) | 0.016 |
Flour-based snack kit | 129 (38.3) | 35 (56.5) | 56 (38.6) | 38 (29.2) | 0.001 |
Meat cooking kit | 55 (16.3) | 17 (27.4) | 26 (17.9) | 12 (9.2) | 0.005 |
Noodle cooking kit | 92 (27.3) | 16 (25.8) | 52 (35.9) | 24 (18.5) | 0.005 |
Sauce for casserole | 40 (11.9) | 7 (11.3) | 21 (14.5) | 12 (9.2) | 0.400 |
Sauce for glazed dishes | 15 (4.5) | 3 (4.8) | 8 (5.5) | 4 (3.1) | 0.611 |
Variable | Total (n = 337) | HMR use frequency for child meals |
P-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Over three times a week (n = 62) | One to two times a week (n = 145) | Under once a week (n = 130) | |||
HMRs are tastier than my cooking |
3.2 ± 0.9 | 3.4 ± 0.8a, |
3.3 ± 0.8a | 3.0 ± 0.9b | 0.002 |
I like to use HMR to shorten the cooking time, and I prefer to use that time for my child |
3.4 ± 1.0 | 3.7 ± 0.9a | 3.5 ± 0.9a | 3.0 ± 1.0b | < 0.001 |
HMRs play an important role for my family’s nutrition intake |
2.3 ± 0.9 | 2.7 ± 0.8a | 2.3 ± 0.8b | 2.1 ± 0.8b | < 0.001 |
Eating HMRs is more desirable than dining out |
2.6 ± 0.8 | 2.9 ± 0.8a | 2.5 ± 0.8b | 2.5 ± 0.8b | 0.006 |
If my child enjoys HMRs, I will prepare nutritious food using HMRs |
2.8 ± 1.0 | 3.6 ± 0.9a | 2.9 ± 1.0b | 2.4 ± 1.0c | < 0.001 |
HMRs allows my child to experience various food |
2.8 ± 0.9 | 3.2 ± 0.9a | 2.9 ± 0.9b | 2.6 ± 0.9c | < 0.001 |
Use of HMRs is not option but essential in the busy modern life |
3.2 ± 0.9 | 3.6 ± 0.6a | 3.4 ± 0.9b | 2.8 ± 0.9c | < 0.001 |
HMRs are not good for nutrition |
3.0 ± 0.8 | 3.2 ± 0.7 | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 0.156 |
For my family health, I will try not to use HMRs if possible |
2.6 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 0.9a | 2.7 ± 0.8b | 2.2 ± 0.9c | < 0.001 |
Total |
25.8 ± 5.2 | 29.0 ± 4.2a | 26.5 ± 4.7b | 23.4 ± 5.0c | < 0.001 |
Variable | Total (n = 337) | HMR use frequency for child meals |
P-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Over three times a week (n = 62) | One to two times a week (n = 145) | Under once a week (n = 130) | |||
Child’s preference for HMR | < 0.001 |
||||
Not preferred | 44 (13.1) | 5 (8.1) | 9 (6.2) | 30 (23.1) | |
Neutral | 201 (59.6) | 34 (54.8) | 98 (67.6) | 69 (53.1) | |
Preferred | 92 (27.3) | 23 (37.1) | 38 (26.2) | 31 (23.8) | |
Child’s preferred type of HMR |
|||||
Rice, porridges | 48 (14.2) | 14 (22.6) | 22 (15.2) | 12 (9.2) | 0.043 |
Soup, casseroles | 53 (15.7) | 14 (22.6) | 25 (17.2) | 14 (10.8) | 0.088 |
Meat side dish | 101 (30.0) | 30 (48.4) | 45 (31.0) | 26 (20.0) | < 0.001 |
Vegetable side dish | 16 (4.8) | 3 (4.8) | 7 (4.8) | 6 (4.6) | 0.996 |
Salad | 13 (3.9) | 5 (8.1) | 4 (2.8) | 4 (3.1) | 0.162 |
Dumplings | 200 (59.4) | 37 (59.7) | 81 (55.9) | 82 (63.1) | 0.477 |
Others | 78 (23.2) | 15 (24.2) | 36 (24.8) | 27 (20.8) | 0.711 |
Mean ± SD or n (%). n differs for this item due to missing data.
n (%). HMR, home meal replacement. Multiple choice.
n (%). HMR, home meal replacement. Multiple choice.
Mean ± SD. HMR, home meal replacement. Measured using a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” (scored 1) to “strongly agree” (scored 5). a–c means with different alphabets in each row are significantly different at α = 0.05 as determined by Duncan’s test (a > b > c). Measured using a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” (scored 5) to “strongly agree” (scored 1). Nine items were used to assess mother’s attitude towards using HMR.
n (%). HMR, home meal replacement. Multiple choice.